Instead of being limited by the need for paid commissions, in the 19th century artists began to think of making art for art's sake; that is, to paint what they needed to paint, following their own curiosity. To structure their analytical and experimental attitude toward painting, they developed a number of aesthetic theories that can be identified by name.
Academicism
Academicism was the starting point. Painters in this school continued working in the Neo-classical tradition of David and Ingres.
Jean-Léon Gérôme
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| Jean-Léon Gérôme, 1824-1904 Reception of Condé in Versailles, 1878 |
William Bouguereau
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| William Bouguereau, 1825-1905 Youth and Love, 1877 |
Alexandre Cabanel
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| Alexandre Cabanel, 1823-1889 Birth of Venus, 1863 |
James Tissot
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| James Tissot, 1836-1902 The Ball, 1880 |
Realism
The way forward was opened by realism. Artists of this school paid more attention to the real world around them; they elevated scenes of ordinary life.
Rosa Bonheur specialized in farm animals, giving them dignity and personality.
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| Rosa Bonheur, 1822-1899 Oxen Ploughing in Nevers, 1849 |
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| Jules Breton, 1827-1906 Calling in the Gleaners, 1859 |
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| Gustave Courbet, 1819-1877 Stormy Sea, 1870 |
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| Gustave Courbet, 1819-1877 The Etretat Cliffs after the Storm, 1870 |
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| Gustave Courbet, 1819-1877 Nude Woman with Dog, c. 1862 |
Transition from Realism to Impressionism
Édouard Manet was inspired by the realism of Courbet, but in his restless experimenting he developed techniques that influenced the development of impressionism.
Some of his early paintings appear to question the values of the past. If you take the next painting literally, you might be scandalized by the juxtaposition of a nude woman and a partially clad woman with two fully dressed men. However, Manet was referencing a painting called Pastoral Concert, from 1509 that is nowadays generally attributed to Titian. In his time, there was an interest simultaneous depictions of the visible and the invisible; thus, the nude women exist only in the imaginations of the two men they inspire. Likewise, in Manet, the men are disputing ideals of beauty, represented by imaginary female figures.
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| Édouard Manet, 1832-1883 Luncheon on the Grass, 1863 |
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| Titian, 1488-1576 Pastoral Concert, 1509 |
The reclining nude is a traditional subject in art—Titian, Goya, and Ingres all did famous versions—but earlier paintings were justified as depictions of goddesses or ideals of beauty. In the painting below, Manet said, let's be frank: a reclining nude wearing baubles and surrounded by luxurious bedding is probably a prostitute or a mistress. Not a fantasy figure, she gazes directly at the viewer, putting us in the place of the lover who has just come in with a fancy bouquet, just brought to her by a fully clothed black servant. The black woman, so hard to make out against a dark background, serves to contrast with the nude's youth and beauty, but she also calls attention to the fact that both women are servants to the implied male lover, and perhaps the almost invisible servant has more dignity than the one who is displaying herself.
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| Édouard Manet, 1832-1883 Olympia, 1863 |
Manet's style was considered shocking in his time because he made no transition between the light and dark elements of the picture; he abandoned the usual subtle gradations in favor of strong contrasts. Later in his development, he drove that contrast to a greater extreme, while adopting a broad, slashing brushstroke that made his work look very modern. The portrait below depicts Berthe Morisot, who was his model, his student and a very close friend, who later married one of his brothers.
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| Édouard Manet, 1832-1883 Berthe Morisot with a Bouquet of Violets, 1872 |
Eva Gonzalès
Eva Gonzalès was another pupil of Manet. She is sometimes called an Impressionist, but this example shows the strong influence of her teacher in the high contrast modeling.
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| Eva Gonzalès, 1849-1883 A Loge at the Théâtre des Italiens, 1874 |
Impressionism
The Impressionist movement deconstructed the traditions of painting. Instead of trying to represent something ideal and eternal, they wanted to capture images that looked spontaneous and momentary. Instead of obsessing over the appearance of reality, they depicted their impression of a scene. Instead of smooth, invisible brushwork, they used visible, expressive brushstrokes. Instead of a dark and sober palette, they tended toward light and colorful schemes, minimizing their use of black. Instead of using the stagey lighting of the studio, they were preoccupied with the visual effects of outdoor light and weather.
"Pure Impressionism" was a movement that lasted only briefly, as a revolutionary trend. Most Impressionist artists had worked in other styles before their Impressionist period, and later developed new styles that were less systematic and more personal.
Claude Monet
Impressionists were concerned with depicting modern life, such as this railway station, which was new in Monet's time.
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| Claude Monet, 1840-1926 The Saint-Lazare Station, 1877 |
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| Claude Monet, 1840-1926 Chrysanthemums, 1878 |
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| Claude Monet, 1840-1926 Haystacks, End of Summer, 1891 |
Here's a portrait of Monet by fellow Impressionist, Pierre-Auguste Renoir.
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| Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1841-1919 Claude Monet, 1875 |
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| Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1841-1919 Dance at the Moulin de la Galette, 1876 |
Renoir used dappled light to create intimacy in the painting below. The flirty young woman is playing on a child's swing, showing off for her young admirer, who gives the swing a push. A child and father wait patiently behind the tree that supports the swing, politely deferring to young love.
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| Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1841-1919 The Swing, 1878 |
Intimacy is a constant theme for Renoir. Here he expresses it as two innocent girls creating harmonious music together.
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| Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1841-1919 Young Girls at the Piano, 1892 |
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| Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1841-1919 Young Girl Seated, 1909 |
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| Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1841-1919 The Bathers, 1919 |
Camille Pissarro
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| Camillle Pissarro, 1830-1903 Woman Hanging Laundry, 1887 |
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| Alfred Sisley, 1839-1899 Farmyard at St. Mammès (Seine et Marne), 1884 |
Though she was a friend and colleague of Manet, Berthe Morisot rejected dark colors and high contrasts. Women were her usual subjects, and her muted palette and casual brushstrokes made them blend in with their surroundings, merely part of the decoration.
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| Berthe Morisot, 1841-1895 Young Girl in Ball Gown, 1879 |
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| Mary Cassatt, 1844-1926 Young Woman Sewing in a Garden, 1880-1882 |
Gustave Caillebotte was committed to depicting the modern world, while carefully rendering true lighting.
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| Gustave Caillebotte, 1848-1894 View of Rooftops (Effect of Snow), 1878 |
Pointillism
Pointillism was a development of Impressionism that replaced expressive brushstrokes with tiny, uniform dots of pure color, in various combinations and densities. Pointillism had a vibrant quality that I find very appealing, especially when the painters got fanciful in their coloration.
Georges Seurat
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| Georges Seurat, 1859-1891 Circus, 1891 |
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| Henri-Edmond Cross, 1856-1910 The Cypresses at Cagnes, 1908 |
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| Maximilien Luce, 1858-1941 The Quai Saint-Michel and Notre-Dame, 1901 |
Paul Signac
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| Paul Signac, 1863-1935 Les Andelys; TheRiverbank, 1886 |
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| Paul Signac, 1863-1935 The Demolisher, 1899 |
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| Paul Signac, 1863-1935 Woman with a Parasol, 1893 |
Post-Impressionism
Post-Impressionism is not an aesthetic theory as much as a desire to get away from theory and develop a more personal approach. Artists in this set do not have much in common, other than towering genius.
Paul Gauguin worked in an Impressionist manner early in his career.
Paul Gauguin worked in an Impressionist manner early in his career.
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| Paul Gauguin, 1848-1903 The Washerwomen at Pont-Aven, 1886 |
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| Paul Gauguin, 1848-1903 Les Alyscamps, 1888 |
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| Paul Gauguin, 1848-1903 Yellow Haystacks, 1889 |
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| Paul Gauguin, 1848-1903 Women of Tahiti, 1891 Photo by Dan L. Smith |
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| Vincent Van Gogh, 1853-1890 Self-portrait, 1889 |
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| Vincent Van Gogh, 1853-1890 Encampment of Gypsies with Caravans, 1888 |
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| Vincent Van Gogh, 1853-1890 Bedroom in Arles, 1889 |
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| Vincent Van Gogh, 1853-1890 The Church at Auvers, 1890 |
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| Paul Cézanne, 1839-1906 Mont Sainte-Victoire, c.1890 |
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| Paul Cézanne, 1839-1906 Still Life With a Basket (Kitchen Table), c. 1890-95 |
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| Paul Cézanne, 1839-1906 Bathers, c. 1890 |
The Museum Experience
The Orsay presents some of the world's favorite paintings. It's no wonder that it is dense with camera and smart phone wielding tourists.
Opened in 1986, the museum occupies the former Orsay railway station, built in 1900. It's a beautiful old building, and I'm glad they found a use for it, but the lighting can't be controlled properly for a museum, so a large number of the paintings were obscured by glare.
The museum presents a lot of art of marginal interest, by painters you never heard of from schools of art that have fallen out of favor. There's a lot of sculpture and interior decoration.
The museum's restaurant retains the profuse rococo decoration of the railway station. We had a gourmet fish lunch there. Service was gracious and fairly quick.
On the way out, we discovered the railway station's 'event center.' What sort of events took place here in the early 1900s? Why was it so lavish? What sort of events take place here in the present?
